fish cum poultry culture.

INTRODUCTION
In modern concentrated animal
farms, a lot of manure arises which
contains dissolved and undissolved
organic material in large
quantities. This secondary product
can be used in plant cultures or in fish ponds. This utilization
procedure has several steps. The
organic material disposed in the
pond is transformed by micro-
organisms under aerobic
conditions. The resulting organic material is nutriment for algae.
Algae transform this inorganic
material into organic plant
material by using solar energy. The
algal biomass thus resulting is food
for the next consumption level for zooplankton. Phyto- and zooplanktons together
form plankton biomass which is the
natural food for fish. Utilization of organic fertilizers in
fish culture has a long tradition. It
is an accepted practice in Far
Eastern countries where climatic
conditions result in rapid metabolic
processes. Considering the allegation of
Wohlfarth (1978) the manure can
be a fodder replacing feed, it would
be negligent not to exploit this
source. Only a part of the huge amount of
pig manure accumulating in pig
farms is utilized in the fields, so the
excess, which contains high
amounts of direct and indirect
proteins (Moav et al., 1977), can be well used in increasing natural
nutrient content of fish ponds. Schroeder and Hepher (1975) found
that manure load causes a
profound change in the natural
nutrient cycle of fish ponds, coming
about by the organic matter
decomposing activity of bacteria and protozoa. Micro-organisms
getting into the water with the
manure also become fish feed.
Water bacteria of 20-30 m m size
are also consumed by pelagic fish
(Kuznetsov, 1977). The optimal utilization of manure
depends greatly upon the stocking
structure. Yashow (1971)
demonstrated that on the influence
of feeding interaction there is a
nutrient movement among the different specific zones in
polycultural fish ponds. The
findings of Wohlfarth (1978)
unequivocally proved the yield
stimulating nature of polycultural
fish pond management. Leventer's (1981) studies also confirmed it
when he proved that algal
production is higher in poly cultural
than in mono cultural fish ponds.
Put the yield is influenced by the
way manure is used as well, for example, to preserve use ful
compounds by keeping them away
from air. It is also important to
ensure the proper balance between
loading and decomposition of the
manure in a pond: therefore, we followed the practice of daily
disposal proposed by Moav et al. (1977) and Schroeder (1974). 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
The aim of our experiment
performed in 1980 was to find the
optimal dose of manure ensuring
the highest yield of fish as well as
the best water quality. In 8 earthen
experimental fish ponds of 0.17 ha each, we applied different manure
loadings. The liquid pig manure
from a nearby pig farm was rather
diluted, due to the great amount of
water used in the management
regime. Dry matter content was about 1 percent. The composition
of the manure was regularly
analysed. The total nitrogen
content was 8 g/l, while the total
phosphorus was 1.2 g/l. In each pond an identical stocking
structure was used, with a
dominance of silver carp.
Considering the feeding
competition between common and
big head carp, the stocking rate of the former was only 27 percent.
The third member of the structure
was grass carp. One and two year
old silver and common carps were
stocked in order to get an answer
to the question as to which age group could better tolerate the
new conditions. In a follow-up experiment in 1981,
the aim was to find the optimal
stocking structure. Six
combinations of stocking structure
were employed in 8 experimental
ponds, with 2 fish species only, silver and common carp, the
former in varying numbers. The
optimal amount of manure applied
(with 1 percent dry matter content) was 1 035 m3 in 1980. Since the manure used had 4
percent dry matter content, this amount was 200 m3 in 1981. Nitrogen content was 8.6 g/l and
phosphorus was 1.4 g/l. In the
control ponds, inorganic fertilizer
was applied containing only 150
kg/ha nitrogen and 20 kg/ha
phosphorus. The aim of the third year's
experiment in 1982 was to
compare the polycultural and
bicultural systems. We wanted to
get an answer to the question of
which stocking structure was better in respect of water quality
and fish production. 2.1 Short Description of Technology The liquid manure from the pig
farm was transferred in tank
vehicles into a tank, from which it
was pumped to the sprinklers
through aluminium pipes and then
sprayed into the ponds. Clean water for rinsing the pipes was
taken from the water supply
channels of the ponds. The pump
had two forks, one for the manure
and the other for cleaning water. 2.2 Equipment and Facilities The CSN-301 type revolving pulley-
pump has two main parts: a
flexible rubber cylinder and a
re volving metal pulley sucker. The
pump is suitable to transfer pulpy,
fibrous material of high, viscosity. By changing the rpm its carrying
capacity can be controlled between 4.5 m3/h and 16 m3/h. The pump operates according to the
volumetric displacement principle. 3. RESULTS Two factors were considered when
establishing the optimal dose of
liquid manure applied. One was the
highest fish yield, the other the
quality of effluent water (Figure 1).
Taking the yield of the control pond as 100 percent, we reached 109 percent when using 1 030 m3 liquid manure, which corresponds
to a net yield of 2.4 t/ha. The net
yields of the other treatments
were far behind this value. Similar
yields were obtained with 1 or 2
years old common carp, with the exception of one pond where the
lack of feed was obvious, i.e. 560 m3 liquid manure was insufficient. Both age groups showed very good growth rate at 1 030 m3 manure loading. The highest or
lowest doses did not favour the
growth rate of the 2 years old
group. Grass carp showed the best growth
rate in ponds with a low amount of
liquid manure. Due to good light
conditions, the well growing
macrophytes ensured the specific
nutrient demand of grass carps, but the increase of manure loading
did not result in increased yield at
the same light conditions. There
was a considerable mortality when
we increased the manure loading,
especially with the 1 year old silver carp. The loss with the 2 years old
stock was far less. During the
regular pilot harvests, we
investigated the gill and general
health condition of all the fish. No
ill or deteriorated fish could be seen. Based on experience obtained in
1981 (Figure 2/a), further work is
needed to; find the optimal rates
and stocking structure. A yield of 1
000 g fish was obtained only at a
very low stocking rate (1 500/ha), which should be increased. While
the weight of common carp was
above 1 000 g in each combination
at a stocking rate of 1 000/ha, the
weight of grass carp decreased
along with the increase of stocking rate (Figure 2/b). The highest net
yield was obtained with the
treatment resulting in the lowest
individual growth rate. However,
silver carps had not even doubled
their original weight. In 1982, the best net yield of 2.5 t/
ha was obtained in a bicultural
pond (Figure 3). The population
was of good quality and healthy.
Comparing the yield of the 4
bicultural and 4 polycultural ponds with identical stocking structure,
the bicultural form proved to be
better, with an average net yield of
2064 kg/ha. The yield of the pond
with polycultural stocking was 1
444 kg/ha. The quality of effluent water did
not show any difference with the
two stocking structures applied.

pig management

Management Piglets from birth to weaning Almost 50 % of the pigs that
die on a farm, die before they
are 14 days old. Good
management in the farrowing
house, where the piglets are
born and kept for the first 28 to 35 days of their lives, is
therefore of the utmost
importance. Remember to keep the
piglets dry and in a
draught-free pen or box
where the temperature is
high and does not change
much The farrowing pen must be
designed in such a way that the
sow cannot lie on top of the
piglets. Newborn piglets are very
sensitive to cold, draughts, wet
bedding and floors as well as sudden changes in temperature.
Ensure therefore that every thing
possible is done to prevent piglets
from being exposed to these
conditions. A farrowing crate for the sows and
a creep area for the piglets (see
chapter on housing) should be
provided to prevent or reduce
deaths as a result of piglets being
trampled by the sow or as a result of cold, draughts, etc. Make sure that all piglets suckle a
teat as soon as possible after birth to take in colostrum. The first
milk produced by the so w
imme diately after the piglets are
born is known as colostrum. It
plays an important role in the
protection of the piglets against diseases during the first few weeks
of their lives. If a sow has more piglets than
the number of teats she has, the
extra piglets can be placed with
another sow with a smaller
number of piglets. This can only
be done if the piglets of the sows are born within a few days
of each other. Sometimes a sow does not accept
her own piglets, usually as a result
of birth shock (often seen in sows
having their first litter of piglets). If
this happens the piglets can be
taken away from the sow for a few hours. If she still refuses to accept
them they should be placed with
another sow if possible. Sows that
do not accept their piglets or bite
them, must rather be slaughtered. If another sow is not available to
rear the rejected piglets, they can
be reared artificially. It does,
how ever, take time and hard work,
because the piglets do not always
grow and perform well. The following milk combinations can be
used to rear piglets artificially: - 2,5 l of fresh cow's milk
- 150 ml of fresh cream
- 125 ml of glucose
- 1 beaten egg OR - 4,5 l of fresh cow's milk
- 0,5 l of cream Feed the piglets small quantities
every 2 to 3 hours. Start by giving
50 ml each time they are fed, so
th at each piglet takes in 350 ml per
day. Gradually increase the
quantity to about 100 ml so that each piglet gets 750 ml at three
weeks of age. Provide creep meal
in a shallow dish or on the floor from two weeks
onwards to
encourage the piglets to eat meal as soon as possible.
Fresh, clean water must always be
available in a shallow dish. The
piglets should drink water as soon
as possible. Specific treatment of piglets Umbilical cord Disinfect the umbilical cord after
birth with an iodine solution or any
other suitable disinfectant to
prevent bacterial infection. Tusk clipping Piglets have very sharp temporary
tusks (or teeth) at birth which must
be clipped to prevent injuries to
the teats of the sows during
suckling. Use a tusk clipper and do
not clip the teeth too close to the gums. The very sharp
temporary tusks (or
teeth) of piglets should
be clipped Iron injections The milk of the sow does not
provide enough iron to piglets that
are reared on concrete floors.
Piglets must therefore be injected
with iron when they are three to
seven days old to prevent them from becoming anaemic which
results in poor appetite and
growth until they start eating
meal. In order to handle the piglets as
little as possible clip the tusks and
give the iron injection at the same
time, about three days after birth. Injectable iron
preparations for piglets
can be bought and
injected into the neck or
buttocks Water and feed Clean, fresh water placed at the
back of the pen where the piglets
will learn to dung is very
important. The sooner they start to
drink water the better. Two to three weeks after birth
they will start to nibble on feed
placed away from the water near
the creep area. Creep feed is
expensive and they will not eat
much before weaning, therefore only small quantities of feed must
be given from two to three weeks
of age. Increase the daily quantity
gradually when they start eating
to prevent wastage. Sow management Good management is necessary to
produce a maximum number of
pigs that can be sold per sow in
one year's time at a maximum
profit for the farmer. The
management skills of the farmer determines to a large extent how
many piglets are reared, how long
it takes to rear them to market
weight and the cost involved. A farmer with good management
skills will: Feed his pigs correctly, which
means that he will have to know
what and how much the pigs must
be fed. Build pig houses that are efficient
and planned in such a way that
management is made easier. See to it that the pig houses and
pigs are kept clean under hygienic
conditions to prevent and control
diseases. Use good breeding material that
will breed pigs that are able to
grow fast, have carcasses with
well-developed muscles (meat)
with as little fat as possible and use
their feed efficiently. Supervise daily and keep records
so that it will be easy to make sure
that everything that needs to be
done is carried out. Pregnant sows Sows come on heat every 21 days.
A sow served by a boar is not
always pregnant. The sow must be
brought to a boar again 19 days
after she has been served for three
to seven days to make sure that she becomes pregnant. Sows that
come on heat for a second time
should again be served. Sows that
regularly come on heat after
service by a boar must rather be
slaughtered. Pregnant sows must be free of
internal parasites. Parasite
infection will affect the health of
the sow as well as her feed intake.
The sows can also infect the piglets.
Parasite eggs that are excreted in the dung can be eaten by the
piglets. Deworm pregnant sows 21
to 28 days before they have their
piglets (piglets are born 116 days
after service). Management during farrowing The farrowing house Piglets have a low resistance to
infections. The farrowing house
must preferably be situated some
distance from the other pig houses
and a high standard of hygiene
must be maintained. Wash and scrub the farrowing pen
properly every time the sow and
piglets are removed. Disinfect the
pen and leave it to dry for a period
of two to three days before placing
a sow in it. When a sow and her piglets are in
a pen it must be kept as dry as
possible. Use as little water as
possible for daily cleaning. Dirty
and wet bedding must be removed
daily. The piglets must be kept
warm in a dry, draught-
free creep area such as a
box The sow Wash and disinfect the sow before
putting her in the farrowing pen
four to five days before the piglets
are born. Young female pigs (glits)
that are about to farrow for the
first time, must get used to their pen. Therefore, put them in the
farrowing crate for a few hours per
day from about 10 days before
farrowing so that they can become
accustomed to it. To prevent sows from becoming
constipated during this period,
green feed such as lucerne or a
high-fibre feed, such as bran can be
fed. Feed 1 kg bran when they are
put in the farrowing crate for the four days before farrowing. Farrowing The sow becomes restless and
starts to "make a nest" with the
bedding in the crate when she is
ready to farrow. Swelling of the vulva is a sign that
she is ready to give birth. Supervision during the birth
process is necessary, especially
when it is a sow giving birth for
the first time. When the piglets are
born, make sure that they do not
get entangled in birth membranes and that they do not suffocate in
mucus or amniotic fluid. Keep the sow calm so that she does not trample the piglets to
death. Piglets usually break the umbilical
cord which joins them to the sow.
If weak piglets do not break the
cord them selves it is advisable to
break the cord with the thumb and
fore finger. During the first week after
farrowing it is important to pay
attention to the following: Check that the sow is not
constipated. The after birth must be discharged
from the sow as soon as possible
(within one to two days). The sow should not develop a
fever as a result of infection. Look out for milk fever during the
first few (4 to 6) days after
farrowing. Look out for the development of
mastitis that results in hard and
inflamed (red) teats. Mastitis and a lack of milk
(agalactia) can cause the piglets to
die of hunger. Immediate attention
by a veterinarian is therefore
necessary. Management during lactation There is a large difference in the
environmental temperature
requirements of sows and piglets.
Sows must feel comfortable. Very
high temperatures will cause the
sows to eat less and lose weight. Lactating sow (sows with piglets)
will produce less milk for the
piglets, so that the piglets will
grow slower. If they lose too much
weight they will also take longer to
come on heat after weaning, which means a delay before the next
pregnancy period. High temperatures are, however,
needed for the piglets, particularly
for the first seven to ten days after
birth. A dry, draught-free creep
area (or box) where they can lie, is
therefore very important (see chapter on housing). Diarrhoea can be a problem in
piglets. If the quantity of feed fed
to the sow is increased too soon
after farrowing, it can cause
diarrhoea. If the piglets get
diarrhoea, do not feed the sow for a day. If the condition does not
improve a bacterial infection can
be the reason. The piglets should
then be treated with antibiotics. As a general guideline the temperature in the farrowing house should preferably be 16 to 20 °C and in the creep area as high as 28 to 32 °C Other management aspects Clean cool water must always be
available for the sow. Provide enough food for the sow,
preferably as much as she wants to
eat so that she does not lose
weight while suckling her piglets. Inspect the sow's udder regularly
(preferably daily) for hard lumps
(signs of infection). If lumps are
found, treat the sow immediately. Clean the farrowing pen daily. Wean the piglets when they are
four weeks but not more than five
weeks old. Wean the piglets by taking the sow
away from the litter (piglets).
Move the piglets to the growing
pens seven days later. Sows come on heat again three to
five days after weaning. Therefore,
take them to the boar from three
days after weaning once a day
until they are served. Sows must receive less feed (about
2 kg a day) from the day after
weaning. Management from weaning to
slaughter Clean water and feed in a trough,
preferably a self-feeder must be
available to the piglets after
weaning. Piglets sometimes tend to eat too
much for a day or two after
weaning. This can cause diarrhoea
that can be stopped by providing
less feed for a few days. If it
continues it may be a bacterial infection and must be treated with
an antibiotic. Antibiotics can be
mixed into the feed or given,
dissolved in water, by way of a
teat attached to a plastic bottle
fastened to the wall or gate. It is advisable to treat the litter for
internal parasites soon after
weaning. Always keep the piglets of the
same sow together by moving
them to the same growth pen
seven days after weaning. Piglets
coming from different litters will
fight one another when placed in the same pen. If it is necessary to put pigs from
different sows in the same pen, try
to put those of the same size and
type together. Do not put one or
two new pigs in a large group. Put
all the pigs in a new pen that is un familiar to them. Spray the pigs
with a solution with a distinctive
smell. Growing pigs must grow as fast as
possible and therefore they must
eat as much as possible of the right
feed mixture (see chapter on
nutrition) without becoming too
fat. A suitable self-feeder that ensures
that every pig can eat as much as it
wants, without wasting feed, is
therefore very important. Growing pigs can be sold as
porkers when they weigh 60 to 70
kg and are between 15 and 18
weeks old, or as baconers when
they weigh 86 to 90 kg and are just
less than six months old. Transport pigs to the market when
it is cool, e.g. early in the morning
or late afternoon. There must not be too much
moving space on the vehicle. Cannibalism Conditions in the growing pen that
are unfavourable such as cold,
draughts, concrete floors without
bedding, not enough eating space
and poor ventilation can cause
stress to the pigs. Pigs bite one another's tails when stressed. This
leads to cannibalism and continued
tail biting. Pigs with injured tails
grow slower and may even die if
the injuries become more severe.
Injured pigs must therefore be removed from the pen, and the
wounds disinfected and treated
with an antibiotic. To prevent tail biting, make sure
that the conditions in the pen are
optimal: Not too hot or too cold and
draught free Sufficient clean bedding A big enough self feeder Enough clean water Not too many pigs in the pen. Put an old
tyre in the
pen or
hang a
chain from
the roof to prevent
boredom Record records helps the farmer
to manage his pigs effectively and
to know which pigs to select for
breeding. All breeding animals
should be marked permanently by
using an ear-number system so that records can be kept for each
animal. Records for each sow for the
following should be kept: The date that the sow is served so
that it is possible to know when
she must come on heat again if she
is not pregnant, or to know
whether she is pregnant when she
does not come on heat 20 to 25 days after service. The expected farrowing date so
that she can be brought to the
farrowing house three to four days
before she is due to farrow. The weaning date so that the
piglets can be weaned on the right
date and that the sow is brought to
the boar again for service from
three days after weaning. This will
also indicate which sows to cull (those that do not come on heat or
those that are on heat again within
about three weeks). The age of the sow and how many
litters she has had so that sows
that get too old can be culled. The litter size (number of piglets)
must be recorded. The total
number born, the number born
alive, the number born dead and
the number of piglets that die
between birth and weaning. These records will give an indication of
problems concerning fertility or
disease. The records kept will help to select
females to be used as sows for
future breeding from big litters
and sows that farrow regularly. It
is important that sows produce at
least two litters every year. Ear-number system for pigs.
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commercial catfish production

Production Process A typical production cycle for
channel catfish farming begins with
spawning of brood fish. Spawning
begins in the spring when water
temperatures increase to above
70º F. At that time, brood fish held in ponds randomly mate and the
fertilized eggs are collected from
spawning containers and moved to
a hatchery. Eggs hatch after 5 to 8
days of incubation and fry are
reared in the hatchery for an additional 4 to 10 days. Fry are
then transferred to a nursery
pond, fed daily through the
summer, and harvested in autumn
or winter as fingerlings. Fingerlings
are then stocked into fish growout ponds, fed daily, and
harvested when they reach 1 to 2
broodstocks. Roughly 18 to 36 months
is required to produce a food-sized
channel catfish from an egg.
Food fish are harvested year- around to meet the needs of
processing plants, so ponds on a
given farm usually contain fish at
various stages of grow out
throughout the year. Maintaining Brood stock Channel catfish brood stock are
easy to maintain in pond culture,
and spawning efficiency is
reasonably good without any
special manipulation of
environmental conditions or the need for hormone treatments.
Although channel catfish may
mature at 2 years, they must be at
least 3 years old and weigh at least
3 pounds for reliable spawning.
Fish 4 to 6 years old, weighing between 4 and 8 pounds are
considered prime spawners. Older
fish produce fewer eggs per body
weight and larger fish may have
difficulty entering the containers
commonly used as nesting sites. Brood stock are maintained at
relatively low standing crops (less
than 2,000 pounds/acre) to provide
good environmental conditions
and minimize suppression of
spawning by over crowding. Brood fish are seined from ponds and
inspected every year or two. Large
fish, which may be poor spawners,
are culled and replaced with
smaller, younger brood fish.
Periodic inspection of brood fish also provides an opportunity for
adjusting the sex ratios within
brood populations. Spawning activity will begin in the
spring when water temperatures
are consistently around 75º F.
Spawning occurs over a period of
several hours as several layers of
adhesive eggs are deposited in spawning containers. Females
between 4 and 8 pounds typically
lay between 3,000 and 4,000 eggs
per pound body weight. Spawning
success (percentage of females
spawning) ranges from 30 to 80 percent each year, and depends
mainly on the condition and age of
the female brood fish and water
temperatures during the spawning
season. Nesting containers are checked
every 2 or 3 days for the presence
of eggs. The eggs collected from
the brood pond are placed in an
insulated, aerated container and
transported to the hatchery. Call us on 08032861326 for excellent service.

fingerlings production

Commercial Catfish Production
Production Process A typical production cycle for
channel catfish farming begins with
spawning of brood fish. Spawning
begins in the spring when water
temperatures increase to above
70º F. At that time, brood fish held in ponds randomly mate and the
fertilized eggs are collected from
spawning containers and moved to
a hatchery. Eggs hatch after 5 to 8
days of incubation and fry are
reared in the hatchery for an additional 4 to 10 days. Fry are
then transferred to a nursery
pond, fed daily through the
summer, and harvested in autumn
or winter as fingerlings. Fingerlings
are then stocked into fish growout ponds, fed daily, and
harvested when they reach 1 to 2
broodstocks. Roughly 18 to 36 months
is required to produce a food-sized
channel catfish from an egg.
Food fish are harvested year- around to meet the needs of
processing plants, so ponds on a
given farm usually contain fish at
various stages of grow out
throughout the year. Maintaining Brood stock Channel catfish brood stock are
easy to maintain in pond culture,
and spawning efficiency is
reasonably good without any
special manipulation of
environmental conditions or the need for hormone treatments.
Although channel catfish may
mature at 2 years, they must be at
least 3 years old and weigh at least
3 pounds for reliable spawning.
Fish 4 to 6 years old, weighing between 4 and 8 pounds are
considered prime spawners. Older
fish produce fewer eggs per body
weight and larger fish may have
difficulty entering the containers
commonly used as nesting sites. Brood stock are maintained at
relatively low standing crops (less
than 2,000 pounds/acre) to provide
good environmental conditions
and minimize suppression of
spawning by over crowding. Brood fish are seined from ponds and
inspected every year or two. Large
fish, which may be poor spawners,
are culled and replaced with
smaller, younger brood fish.
Periodic inspection of brood fish also provides an opportunity for
adjusting the sex ratios within
brood populations. Spawning activity will begin in the
spring when water temperatures
are consistently around 75º F.
Spawning occurs over a period of
several hours as several layers of
adhesive eggs are deposited in spawning containers. Females
between 4 and 8 pounds typically
lay between 3,000 and 4,000 eggs
per pound body weight. Spawning
success (percentage of females
spawning) ranges from 30 to 80 percent each year, and depends
mainly on the condition and age of
the female brood fish and water
temperatures during the spawning
season. Nesting containers are checked
every 2 or 3 days for the presence
of eggs. The eggs collected from
the brood pond are placed in an
insulated, aerated container and
transported to the hatchery.
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meaning of hypophysation

Hypophysation is presently the
most commonly used method
for the induced breeding of grass
carp. In the hypophysation
procedure pituitary extract ... is
suspended in a physiological salt solution . The practice of injecting fish with
substances derived from the
pituitary gland for the purpose
of inducing reproduction (such
as ovulation) when conditions
are not favorable for successful natural spawning in ponds.

Artificial fertilization

3 Artificial fertilization and subsequent rearing In artificial fertilization, the
culturist handles the brood fish and
is, therefore, in a position to
eliminate unsuitable fish and to
choose the right type of fish for
eventual stock improvement. Further, this technique also enables
the culturist to produce useful
hybrids, combining the desirable
qualities of different strains of fish
of the same species and/or of
different species. The ripe sexual products required
for artificial fertilization can be
obtained by either of the following
methods:
a. the fish are captured in their
spawning ground during the act of
natural spawning, and the sexual
products (eggs and sperms)
stripped off this
method is applicable to the coregonids, pike, and common
carp, or
b. the selected brood fish are first
administered human gonadotropin
or fish pituitary extract, and when
they are in oozing condition they
are stripped to procure the ripe
sexual products this method is commonly adopted for
the Chinese carp in India. Fertilized eggs resulting from
artificial fertilization are hatched
and reared up to the fingerling
stage under controlled conditions,
thus ensuring a high rate of
survival and healthy growth.
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FEEDING OF CATFISH IN NIGERIA

Feeding High stocking densities require
nutritionally complete rations for
optimal growth. Most commercial
rations contain 28 to 36% crude
protein with the necessary
vitamins and minerals. Sinking or floating feeds can be used. Floating
feeds cost more but offer the
advantages of observation of fish
health and vigor and adjustment of
daily feeding rates to avoid
underfeeding or overfeeding. Generally, catfish should be fed
what they will consume in about 15
minutes. A more accurate
alternative during warm weather
months is to feed 3% of the total
fish body weight in the pond. Fish can be sampled periodically and an
estimate made of the total weight
of the fish in the pond. When fish
reach an average weight of ¾
pound, they should be fed about
2% of their body weight daily. Fish should be fed during the
winter months. Growth and
feeding slows during cold weather.
Fish not fed during the winter will
lose weight and are more
susceptible to diseases and parasites. When water
temperatures are below 55°F, feed
1% of their body weight every
other day. Feed 1% every day
when water temperatures are
between 56°F and 65°F. Sinking pellets should be used during the
winter.
call for local floating fish production.
08032861326

HOW TO CONSTRUCT CONCRETE POND FOR FISH FARMING

Construction of concrete fish tank as an enclosure for fish housing could be built using a wide type of materials such as; metals, blocks, cement, gravels or stones and outlets and inlets facilities.
Factors considered before making choice of building a fish pond is;
(1) Durability
(2) Strength
(3) Impervious
(4) Permeability
(5) Workability
(6) Dimensional stability
Concrete mixture is a mixture of cement, fine (aggregate commonly called sand), coarse aggregate and gravel (granite) mix together in appropriate proportion with water added to form a paste. Concrete could be plain or reinforced. Plain concrete is the one without steel rod. Reinforced concrete is the one embedded with steel rod. The steel rod technically called reinforcment bar. The choice either plain or reinforced is the function of specific use. A structure could be plain and reinforced.
PROCEDURE FOR CONCRETE FISH TANK CONSTRUCTION.
* Clear site of weeds/vegetation
* pegout required area
* remove the top soil until a firm lateric basement is reached at about 6.0m
* place frameworke in the perimetre of dug out area as desirable and fill with fresh concrete mixture of 1:3:6 cement/sand/gravel.
* Arrange coaches of blocks preferably in 4 or 5.
* insert the flush through pipe at base of tank.
* Plaster the interior.
* Poure water to the brim after two days and check for linkage.
* Treat the new pond two weeks before stocking.
FOR OUR SERVICES CALL 08032861326.

CATFISH FARMING IN NIGERIA

Fish farming, In Nigeria Cat Fish
Farming Business In Nigeria – If
you want to start up a fish farming business in Nigeria
then this is a sure guide to help
you realize your dreams, Nigerians are large consumers of fish and it remains one of the main products consumed in terms of animal protein. Investors have the opportunity to establish fish
farming businesses in several
locations across Nigeria. Starting a fish farm in Nigeria requires a lot of, skill and planning as
the investor would have to look
into a lot of variables to make the
business possible. Though starting a fish farming business
would require intensive study
both the actual technique in fish
production as well as the
expenses one has to invest for
equipment, the fish farming business can prove to be a very
profitable venture. Cat Fish
Farming in Nigeria.
Studying to start a fish farming
business. To Start your own Cat Fish farm in Nigeria, Expert Advice,Fish Pond Construction and Supplies of high breed fingerlings, feasibility study for farms and all agro matters.
Call Mr KINGSLEY ON 08032861326

FISH FARM MANAGEMENT

Fish farming in Nigeria is currently
a very lucrative business and it is
mainly boosted by the continuous
rise in the demand for catfish. This trend therefore makes catfish
culture the most popular form of
fish farming in Nigeria and it is
therefore where the discourse of
this article is going to be centred. Whether you are just starting out
in aquaculture with the hope of
making just an extra income or to
go into full scale commercial
production, Here you will discover
the prospects and the challenges facing the catfish industry in
Nigeria. OVERVIEW OF FISH FARMING IN
NIGERIA Let me start by giving you a quick
overview of the state of fish
farming in Nigeria. The most common species found in
Nigeria are; Clarias gariepinus, Heterobranchus bidorsalis, Clarias X Heterobranchus hybrid (Heteroclarias) and Clarias nigrodigitatus. Heterobranchus sp are very
common in the south eastern part
of Nigeria with clarias spp
dominating in the west. Despite the popularity of catfish
farming in Nigeria, the fish farming
industry can best be described as
being at the infant stage when
compare to the large market
potential for its production and marketing. This is mainly due to
unavailability of fingerlings owing
to lack of adequate infrastructure
for hatcheries for fingerling
production. BREEDING If you intend to go into catfish
farming in Nigeria, the first thing
you have to get hold of is the
fingerlings. The fingerling can be obtained
mainly through artificial
propagation in the hatcheries
through hormonal induction. If you intend to produce your own
fertilized eggs, you can make use
of the homoplastic pituitary gland
suspension. In Nigeria, It is usually more
affordable than the imported
hormonal analogues. Fish Farmers
also say that they are more
reliable. And I seriously don’t
doubt them. But despite the beauty of induced
spawning, there the challenges
which you must face: both biotic
and abiotic challenges. These problems all have there root
in the extra care needed to be
given to the fry during the first
week of life. In this regard, you
have to battle with provision of
zooplankton which serves as Feeds for the purpose of feeding of the
larvae, fry and fingerlings thus
playing a major role on their
growth and survival. There is also the problem of
cannibalism, heavy predation by
frogs/aquatic insects and the
abiotic challenges such as water
temperature, dissolved oxygen
(>4.5mg/L-1), levels of ammonia. The brood stock to use for the

purpose of breeding should be
between 0.3kg and 2kg. CULTURE SYSTEM Next thing on the line is the culture
system you will use. First and foremost, you have to be
aware that these African catfishes
(especially Clarias gariepinus) are
cannibals as such you should take
great care in sorting them
according to size. If you intend to culture the
fingerling outdoor, you should
take into consideration the
prevalence of predatory insects in
Nigeria. Therefore ensure you
cover the tanks with mosquito nets so as to keep the predatory insects
away. For the adult, poly culture of clarias
gariepinus with tilapia spp is very
common in Nigeria and have been
known over the years to be
productive. This is carried out
using mainly concrete tanks which allow supplementary feeding thus
ensuring higher fish yield. Some few farmers also use indoor
water re-circulatory system (WRS).
But it is costlier so most simply use
the concrete tanks
CALL US 0N 08032861326.

FISH FARM CONSULTANTS IN NIGERIA

Call (08032861326) Kingsway Agro Services:we are too
good to deliver every services
about fish production, fingerlings
production, setting up aquaculture
environment decoration in
beautifying Your homes, and aquarium designs, pond construction,fish feed
production, supply of machines used
in fingerlings production and feed
production, consultancy in all
fishery matters. Drugs used in
treating ponds,piggery house construction and fish disease treatment etc. Call us on 08032861326 for excellent
services at low price.

FINGERLING PRODUCTION AND BROODS SELECTION

Call 08032861326 Kingsway Agro Services. Practical on hatchery of catfish.
AIM OF THE PRACTICAL
The major objective of the practical is to
(1)Empack the knowledge of artificial induced breeding to learners and beginers.
(2)For learners to know that is better and more reliable because (i) better rate of fertilization and hatching will be achieved.(ii) protection against enemies and unfavourable environmental condition.(iii) better condition for growth and survival.
PROCEDURE INVOLVED IN FISH BREEDING.
(1)selection of broodstock from fish pond.
(2)Inducing final maturation and ovulation with hormone treatment.
(3)Procurement of ripe eggs by stripping.
(4)Procurement of milt by dissection of male donor.
(5)Artificial fertilization.
(6)Rearing of lavae or fry.
SELECTION OF BROODSTOCK FROM FISH POND.
The broodstock was selected and kept in plastic tank filled with water. The female breeder showed the maturity by bringing out a brighter colour and the abdomen, was swollen, lighter brownish in colour, when applied pressure on the abdomen, some eggs quickly comout with light green and a dot in the middle.
In the male breeder, the genital pappillae was elongated. Dark and slightly swollen.
INDUCED FINAL MATURATION AND OVULATION WITH HORMONE.
On the next day, the breeder was broughtout of tank and placed on top of the table by 8:05am to weigh by the the use of weighing scale.
The male broodstock weighed 2.0kg
The female broodstock weighed 3.0kg.
The temperature of the environment is 28 degree cen.
The temperature of water 27 degree cen.
The female breeder was injected with ovaprim(1.5mm) dose by 8:12am intra muscularly at angle 45 degree above the lateral line and above the dorsal fin.
The latency period was 8 hours (time of injection and ovulation).
PROCUREMENT OF MILT BY DISSECTION OF A MALE DONOR.
The male was dissected and to obtained the tastes which are located at the dorsal part of abdominal cavity of the male. The milt was obtained from the tastes by cutting little incisions in the external part of the lobules. The milt was preserved temporaly in glass cup and covered.
PROCUREMENT OF THE RIP EGG BY STRIPPING.
The ovulated eggs in the female breeder was obtained when the eggs riped. The ovulation period reached by 5:15pm. The belly was thick and soft. Two person held the fish with wet towel to aviod injury to the fish. The ventral side of the fish was dried up with toilet tissue and gently pressed towards the genital pappillae to extrud the eggs.
ARTIFICIAL FERTILIZATION
We used dry method of fertilization by adding the milt on the stripped eggs and few drops saline solution to ensure proper mixing of the sexual product through gentle shaking of the bowel and stired.
INCUBATION AND HATCHING OF FRY
We washed the plastic bowel and filled close to the brim with clean water. The fertilized eggs were spread homogenously in a single layer on a kakaban (mosquito netting material placed on top of the water in bowel.
LARVAL REARING
We seperated the larvae from egg shell and unhatched eggs. The kakaban was removed which helped in seperating the lavae from the shell. The remaining unhatched eggs were removed by siphoning.
NURSING (FEEDING) FRY
Feeding started after the third day of hatching, we introduced Artemia naupilli. We fed with Artemia for seven days before changing to 0.3mm artificial feed after four weeks we got fingerlings for stocking. FOR MORE INFORMATION OR POND CONSTRUCTION YOU CAN BUY OUR E-BOOKS OR CALL US ON 08032861326. ORDER NOW!.

HELPS FOR FISH FARMING IN NIGERIA

Call 08032861326 kingsway Agro Services. We regard ourselves as the leading experts in the scaling, design and costing of fish farms in Africa. Our focus is on using the latest international advances in aquaculture technology, combined with a pragmatic `what works in Africa' attitude, to develop fish farming systems that are cost effective to erect and operate, produce the targetted production volumes and are as simple as possible to manage. Furthermore, we focus on using technology that is sustainable in the long term from the economic, biological and environmental perspectives. We also produce Business Plans for clients to tie the design, costing and earning potential of the production system into a Bankable Document to be used in fund raising and directing the development of the Project. We have designed the following
installations: Recirculating Systems for hatcheries and / or rearing
facilities for catfish, tilapia, kob,
ornamental fish, rainbow trout,
pangasius, marron, grouper, red
snapper and yellowtail to a
maximum of 1 000 tons p.a. Cage Systems for tilapia, koi, catfish and goldfish to a maximum
of 5 000 tons p.a. Earthen Pond Systems for tilapia, marron, koi, goldfish, rabbitfish
and mullet to a maximum of 30ha
of water surface area. Aquaponics Systems for tilapia, catfish and heterotis.

FISH DISEASE/FISH KILL IN FISH FARMING

The most common cause of fish
kill is suffocation, which occurs
when aquatic plants do not
produce enough oxygen to the
fish to breath. This may occur
during heavy snow and ice cover in winter, during rapid
plant die-offs after a cold rain
or several days of cloud cover
or following aquatic plant die-
offs from herbicide applications.
Once fish suffocation starts, it is too late to stop it. Fish kills in
general can be best prevented
by properly controlling nutrient
inputs and over abundant
aquatic vegetation. Winter kills
can be prevented by circulating the water either by motor-
driven air compressors or wind
driven baffles and artificially
aerating. This will usually stir
up organic materials and result
in more oxygen consumption as the materials decay. Summer
kills can be prevented by
making sure no fertilizer,
herbicides, insecticides or
organic run-off enter the pond.
Chemically threat aquatic vegetation early in the growing
season according to the label
and avoid treatments in late
July and August. Avoid treating
large amounts of aquatic
vegetation throughout the pond by treating one area at a
time.. Record Keeping: Keep accurate records of
numbers and sizes of fish
caught in the pond that will
help you evaluate the status of
your fish populations and if any
additional management is needed. Record the size and
kind of fish caught. Periodically
review your records to see if
there are any differences in the
number, size, or kinds of fish
now in the pond. Doing this will reduce and prevent fish killing. For consultancy or help call 08032861326.

MANAGEMENT IN FISH FARMING

The purpose of fish
management is to provide good
fishing.
1. Removing Unwanted &
Over populated Fish: The best management option
when your pond becomes out of
balance and over populated,
may be to destroy all fish in the
pond and start over. Removing
or killing the fish population usually is much easier and less
expensive if the pond can be
drained. Fish will survive in
very small pools of water away
from the main body of water to
help treat your problem. Roten one is a registered aquatic
chemical that is used to kill fish.
It comes in liquid or powder
forms, and a concentration of 5
precent active ingredient.
Roten one should be applied at a rate of 10 ponds per acre-foot.
The volume of water in the
pond, must be estimated so this
concentration of roten one can
be calculated. One gallon of the
liquid form is sufficient to treat app. 1 acre-ffot. Powdered
roten one should be mixed with
water (about 2 gallons per
pound of powder). Liquid
roten one also should be diluted
with water at a rate of about 10 gallons of water to 1 gallon of
roten one. Using buckets,
sprayers, or pumps, apply
roten one evenly over the pond.
Roten one applied properly and
at recommended rates will not harm most livestock. However,
pigs might be affected by the
formulation, and ducks and
geese may suffer if they eat
dead fish. Roten one is usually
applied in the summer or fall when water temperature is
above 70 degrees F. Roten one
will sissipate within 3 to 10
days, depending on weather
conditions. It is generally safe
to restock 2 to 3 weeks after applying the rotenone. To check
for the presence of roten one,
place a few small blue gill in a
min now bucket and float it in
the pond. If the fish are still
alive after 24 hours it is safe to restock! Before using roten one
it is best to contact a fisheries
scientist or for information in
purchasing, applying, and using
roten one. In Texas, roten one can be purchased from most
farm supply ot feed stores. You
must have a private application
license to purchase and use this
chemical.
Call 08032861326 for help and consultancy.

HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE/GREEN REVELUTION

Green Revolution refers to a series of research, development,
and technology transfer initiatives, occurring between the
1940s and the late 1970s, that
increased agriculture production
around the world, beginning most markedly in the late 1960s.[1] The initiatives, led by Norman Borlaug, the "Father of the Green Revolution" credited with saving
over a billion people from
starvation, involved the
development of high-yielding
varieties of cereal grains,
expansion of irrigation infrastructure, modernization of
management techniques,
distribution of hybridized seeds,
synthetic fertilizers, and pesticides to farmers. The term "Green Revolution" was
first used in 1968 by former United States Agency for
International Development (USAID) director William Gaud, who noted the spread of the new
technologies and said, "These and other
developments in the field of
agriculture contain the
makings of a new revolution.
It is not a violent Red Revolution like that of the Soviets, nor is it a White Revolution like that of the Shah of Iran. I call it the Green Revolution."[2] History The agricultural development that
began in Mexico by Norman Borlaug in 1943 (based on Nazareno Strampelli's studies) had been judged as a success and the Rockefeller Foundation sought to spread it to other nations. The
Office of Special Studies in Mexico
became an informal international
research institution in 1959, and in
1963 it formally became CIMMYT, The International Maize and
Wheat Improvement Center. In 1961 India was on the brink of mass famine.[3] Borlaug was invited to India by the adviser to
the Indian minister of agriculture M. S. Swaminathan. Despite bureaucratic hurdles imposed by
India's grain monopolies, the Ford Foundation and Indian government collaborated to
import wheat seed from CIMMYT. Punjab was selected by the Indian government to be the first site to
try the new crops because of its
reliable water supply and a
history of agricultural success.
India began its own Green
Revolution program of plant breeding, irrigation development, and financing of agrochemicals.[4] India soon adopted IR8 – a semi-
dwarf rice variety developed by
the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) that could produce more grains of rice per plant
when grown with certain
fertilizers and irrigation. In 1968,
Indian agronomist S.K. De Datta
published his findings that IR8 rice
yielded about 5 tons per hectare with no fertilizer, and almost 10
tons per hectare under optimal
conditions. This was 10 times the yield of traditional rice.[5] IR8 was a success throughout Asia, and
dubbed the "Miracle Rice". IR8 was
also developed into Semi-dwarf IR36. Wheat yields in developing countries, 1950 to 2004, kg/HA baseline 500 In the 1960s, rice yields in India
were about two tons per hectare;
by the mid-1990s, they had risen
to six tons per hectare. In the
1970s, rice cost about $550 a ton;
in 2001, it cost under $200 a ton. [6] India became one of the world's most successful rice
producers, and is now a major rice
exporter, shipping nearly
4.5 million tons in 2006. IR8 and the Philippines In 1960, the Government of the
Republic of the Philippines with Ford and Rockefeller Foundations
established IRRI (International
Rice Research Institute). A rice
crossing between Dee-Geo-woo-
gen and Peta was done at IRRI in
1962. In 1966, one of the breeding lines became a new cultivar, IR8. [7] IR8 required the use of fertilizers and pesticides, but
produced substantially higher
yields than the traditional
cultivars. Annual rice production
in the Philippines increased from
3.7 to 7.7 million tons in two decades.[8] The switch to IR8 rice made the Philippines a rice
exporter for the first time in the 20th century.[9] But the heavy pesticide use reduced the number
of fish and frog species found in rice paddies.[10] CGIAR In 1970, foundation officials
proposed a worldwide network of
agricultural research centers
under a permanent secretariat.
This was further supported and
developed by the World Bank; on 19 May 1971, the Consultative Group on International
Agricultural Research was established, co-sponsored by the
FAO, IFAD and UNDP. CGIAR, has
added many research centers
throughout the world. CGIAR has responded, at least in
part, to criticisms of Green
Revolution methodologies. This
began in the 1980s, and mainly
was a result of pressure from donor organizations.[11] Methods like Agroecosystem Analysis and
Farming System Research have
been adopted to gain a more
holistic view of agriculture.
Methods like Rapid Rural Appraisal
and Participatory Rural Appraisal have been adopted to help
scientists understand the
problems faced by farmers and
even give farmers a role in the
development process. Problems in Africa There have been numerous
attempts to introduce the
successful concepts from the
Mexican and Indian projects into Africa.[12] These programs have generally been less successful.
Reasons cited include widespread
corruption, insecurity, a lack of
infrastructure, and a general lack
of will on the part of the
governments. Yet environmental factors, such as the availability of
water for irrigation, the high
diversity in slope and soil types in
one given area are also reasons
why the Green Revolution is not so successful in Africa.[13] A recent program in western
Africa is attempting to introduce a
new high-yield variety of rice
known as "New Rice for Africa" (NERICA). NERICAs yield about 30% more rice under
normal conditions, and can double
yields with small amounts of
fertilizer and very basic irrigation.
However the program has been
beset by problems getting the rice into the hands of farmers, and to
date the only success has been in Guinea where it currently accounts for 16% of rice cultivation.[14] After a famine in 2001 and years
of chronic hunger and poverty, in
2005 the small African country of Malawi launched the Agricultural Input Subsidy Program by which
vouchers are given to smallholder
farmers to buy subsidized
nitrogen fertilizer and maize
seeds. Within its first year, the
program was reported with extreme success, producing the
largest maize harvest of the
country's history; enough to feed
the country with tons of maize left
over. The program has advanced
yearly ever since. Various sources claim that the program has been
an unusual success, hailing it as a "miracle".[15] Agricultural production and
food security Technologies New varieties of wheat and other grains were instrumental to the green revolution. The Green Revolution spread
technologies that had already
existed before, but had not been
widely used outside industrialized
nations. These technologies
included modern irrigation projects, pesticides, synthetic nitrogen fertilizer and improved crop varieties developed through
the conventional, science-based
methods available at the time. The novel technological
development of the Green
Revolution was the production of
novel wheat cultivars. Agronomists bred cultivars of maize, wheat, and rice that are
generally referred to as HYVs or
“high-yielding varieties”. HYVs
have higher nitrogen-absorbing
potential than other varieties.
Since cereals that absorbed extra nitrogen would typically lodge, or
fall over before harvest, semi-
dwarfing genes were bred into their genomes. A Japanese dwarf wheat cultivar (Norin 10 wheat), which was sent to Washington,
D.C. by Cecil Salmon, was instrumental in developing Green
Revolution wheat cultivars. IR8,
the first widely implemented HYV
rice to be developed by IRRI, was
created through a cross between
an Indonesian variety named “Peta” and a Chinese variety
named “Dee-geo-woo-gen.” With advances in molecular genetics, the mutant genes responsible for Arabidopsis thaliana genes (GA 20-oxidase, [16]ga1,[17]ga1-3[18]), wheat reduced-height genes (Rht)[19] and a rice semidwarf gene (sd1) [20] were cloned. These were identified as gibberellin biosynthesis genes or cellular signaling component genes. Stem growth in the mutant background
is significantly reduced leading to
the dwarf phenotype. Photosynthetic investment in the stem is reduced dramatically as
the shorter plants are inherently
more stable mechanically.
Assimilates become redirected to
grain production, amplifying in
particular the effect of chemical fertilizers on commercial yield. HYVs significantly outperform
traditional varieties in the
presence of adequate irrigation,
pesticides, and fertilizers. In the
absence of these inputs,
traditional varieties may outperform HYVs. Therefore,
several authors have challenged
the apparent superiority of HYVs
not only compared to the
traditional varieties alone, but by
contrasting the monocultural system associated with HYVs with
the polycultural system associated with traditional ones.[21] Production increases Cereal production more than
doubled in developing nations between the years 1961–1985.[22] Yields of rice, maize, and wheat
increased steadily during that period.[22] The production increases can be attributed
roughly equally to irrigation,
fertilizer, and seed development,
at least in the case of Asian rice. [22] While agricultural output
increased as a result of the Green
Revolution, the energy input to
produce a crop has increased faster,[23] so that the ratio of crops produced to energy input
has decreased over time. Green
Revolution techniques also
heavily rely on chemical fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides, some of which must be developed from fossil fuels,
making agriculture increasingly
reliant on petroleum products. [24] Proponents of the Peak Oil theory fear that a future decline in
oil and gas production would lead
to a decline in food production or
even a Malthusian catastrophe. [25] World population 1950–2010 Effects on food security Main article: Food security The effects of the Green
Revolution on global food security are difficult to assess because of
the complexities involved in food
systems. The world population has grown by about four billion since the
beginning of the Green Revolution
and many believe that, without
the Revolution, there would have
been greater famine and malnutrition. India saw annual wheat production rise from 10
million tons in the 1960s to 73 million in 2006.[26] The average person in the developing
world consumes roughly 25%
more calories per day now than before the Green Revolution.[22] Between 1950 and 1984, as the
Green Revolution transformed
agriculture around the globe,
world grain production increased by over 250%.[27] The production increases fostered
by the Green Revolution are often
credited with having helped to
avoid widespread famine, and for feeding billions of people.[28] There are also claims that the
Green Revolution has decreased
food security for a large number
of people. One claim involves the
shift of subsistence-oriented
cropland to cropland oriented towards production of grain for
export or animal feed. For
example, the Green Revolution
replaced much of the land used
for pulses that fed Indian peasants for wheat, which did not make up
a large portion of the peasant diet.[29] Criticism Food security Malthusian criticism Some criticisms generally involve
some variation of the Malthusian principle of population. Such
concerns often revolve around the
idea that the Green Revolution is unsustainable,[30] and argue that humanity is now in a state of overpopulation with regards to the sustainable carrying capacity and ecological demands on the Earth. Although 36 million people die
each year as a direct or indirect
result of hunger and poor nutrition,[31] Malthus' more extreme predictions have
frequently failed to materialize. In
1798 Thomas Malthus made his
prediction of impending famine. [32] The world's population had doubled by 1923 and doubled
again by 1973 without fulfilling
Malthus' prediction. Malthusian Paul R. Ehrlich, in his 1968 book The Population Bomb, said that "India couldn't possibly feed two
hundred million more people by
1980" and "Hundreds of millions of
people will starve to death in spite of any crash programs."[32] Ehrlich's warnings failed to
materialize when India became
self-sustaining in cereal
production in 1974 (six years
later) as a result of the
introduction of Norman Borlaug's dwarf wheat varieties.[32] M. King Hubbert's prediction of world petroleum production rates. Modern agriculture is totally reliant on petroleum energy.[33] Since supplies of oil and gas are
essential to modern agriculture techniques,[34] a fall in global oil supplies could cause spiking food prices in the coming decades.[35] Famine To some modern Western
sociologists and writers,
increasing food production is not
synonymous with increasing food
security, and is only part of a
larger equation. For example, Harvard professor Amartya Sen claimed large historic famines were not caused by decreases in
food supply, but by socioeconomic
dynamics and a failure of public action.[36] However, economist Peter Bowbrick disputes Sen's
theory, arguing that Sen relies on
inconsistent arguments and
contradicts available information,
including sources that Sen himself cited.[37] Bowbrick further argues that Sen's views coincide with that
of the Bengal government at the time of the Bengal famine of 1943, and the policies Sen advocates failed to relieve the famine.[37] Quality of diet Some have challenged the value
of the increased food production
of Green Revolution agriculture. Miguel A. Altieri, (a pioneer of agroecology and peasant-
advocate), writes that the
comparison between traditional
systems of agriculture and Green
Revolution agriculture has been
unfair, because Green Revolution agriculture produces monocultures of cereal grains, while traditional agriculture
usually incorporates polycultures.[citation needed] These monoculture crops are
often used for export, feed for
animals, or conversion into
biofuel. According to Emile Frison
of Bioversity International, the Green Revolution has also led to a
change in dietary habits, as fewer
people are affected by hunger and
die from starvation, but many are
affected by malnutrition such as iron or vitamin-A deficiencies.[13] Frison further asserts that almost
60% of yearly deaths of children
under age five in developing
countries are related to malnutrition.[13] High-yield rice (HYR), introduced
since 1964 to poverty-ridden
Asian countries, such as the Philippines, was found to have inferior flavor and be more
glutinous and less savory than
their native varieties.[citation needed] This caused its price to be lower than the average market value.[38] In the Philippines the introduction
of heavy pesticides to rice
production, in the early part of
the Green Revolution, poisoned
and killed off fish and weedy
green vegetables that traditionally coexisted in rice paddies. These were nutritious food sources for many poor
Filipino farmers prior to the
introduction of pesticides, further impacting the diets of locals.[39] Political impact A major critic[citation needed] of the Green Revolution, U.S.
investigative journalist Mark Dowie, writes:[citation needed] The primary objective of the
program was geopolitical: to
provide food for the populace
in undeveloped countries and
so bring social stability and
weaken the fomenting of communist insurgency. Citing internal Foundation
documents, Dowie states that the
Ford Foundation had a greater
concern than Rockefeller in this area.[40] There is significant evidence that
the Green Revolution weakened
socialist movements in many
nations. In countries such as India,
Mexico, and the Philippines,
technological solutions were sought as an alternative to
expanding agrarian reform initiatives, the latter of which
were often linked to socialist politics.[41] Socioeconomic impacts The transition from traditional
agriculture, in which inputs were
generated on-farm, to Green
Revolution agriculture, which
required the purchase of inputs,
led to the widespread establishment of rural credit
institutions. Smaller farmers often
went into debt, which in many cases results in a loss of their farmland.[11][42] The increased level of mechanization on larger
farms made possible by the Green
Revolution removed a large
source of employment from the rural economy.[11] Because wealthier farmers had better
access to credit and land, the
Green Revolution increased class
disparities. The rich–poor gap
widened due to that. Because
some regions were able to adopt Green Revolution agriculture
more readily than others (for
political or geographical reasons),
interregional economic disparities
increased as well. Many small
farmers are hurt by the dropping prices resulting from increased
production overall.[citation needed] However, large-scale farming
companies only account for less
than 10% of the total farming
capacity. The new economic difficulties of
small holder farmers and landless
farm workers led to increased rural-urban migration. The increase in food production led to
a cheaper food for urban dwellers,
and the increase in urban
population increased the potential
for industrialization.[citation needed] Globalization In the most basic sense, the Green
Revolution was a product of globalization as evidenced in the creation of international
agricultural research centers that
shared information, and with
transnational funding from
groups like the Rockefeller
Foundation, Ford Foundation, and United States Agency for
International Development (USAID). Additionally, the inputs
required in Green Revolution
agriculture created new markets
for seed and chemical
corporations, many of which were
based in the United States. For example, Standard Oil of New Jersey established hundreds of distributors in the Philippines to
sell agricultural packages
composed of HYV seed, fertilizer, and pesticides.[citation needed] Environmental impact Increased use of irrigation played a major role in the green revolution. Pesticides Green Revolution agriculture
relies on extensive use of pesticides, which are necessary to limit the high levels of pest damage that inevitably occur in monocropping – the practice of producing or growing one single
crop over a wide area. Biodiversity The spread of Green Revolution
agriculture affected both
agricultural biodiversity and wild biodiversity.[39] There is little disagreement that the Green
Revolution acted to reduce
agricultural biodiversity, as it
relied on just a few high-yield
varieties of each crop. This has led to concerns about the
susceptibility of a food supply to
pathogens that cannot be
controlled by agrochemicals, as
well as the permanent loss of
many valuable genetic traits bred into traditional varieties over
thousands of years. To address
these concerns, massive seed
banks such as Consultative Group on International Agricultural
Research’s (CGIAR) International Plant Genetic Resources Institute
(now Bioversity International) have been established (see Svalbard Global Seed Vault). There are varying opinions about
the effect of the Green Revolution
on wild biodiversity. One
hypothesis speculates that by
increasing production per unit of
land area, agriculture will not need to expand into new,
uncultivated areas to feed a growing human population.[43] However, land degradation and
soil nutrients depletion have
forced farmers to clear up
formerly forested areas in order to keep up with production.[44] A counter-hypothesis speculates
that biodiversity was sacrificed
because traditional systems of
agriculture that were displaced
sometimes incorporated practices
to preserve wild biodiversity, and because the Green Revolution
expanded agricultural
development into new areas
where it was once unprofitable or
too arid. For example, the
development of wheat varieties tolerant to acid soil conditions
with high aluminium content,
permitted the introduction of
agriculture in sensitive Brazilian ecosystems as Cerrado semi- humid tropical savanna and Amazon rainforest in the geoeconomic macroregions of Centro-Sul and Amazônia.[43] Before the Green Revolution,
other Brazilian ecosystems were
also significantly damaged by
human activity, such as the once
1st or 2nd main contributor to
Brazilian megadiversity Atlantic Rainforest (above 85% of deforestation in the 1980s, about
95% after 2010s) and the
important xeric shrublands called Caatinga mainly in the Northeastern Brazil (about 40% in the 1980s, about 50% after 2010s
— deforestation of the Caatinga
biome is generally associated with
greater risks of desertification). Nevertheless, the world
community has clearly
acknowledged the negative
aspects of agricultural expansion
as the 1992 Rio Treaty, signed by 189 nations, has generated
numerous national Biodiversity Action Plans which assign significant biodiversity loss to
agriculture's expansion into new
domains. Health impact The consumption of the pesticides used to kill pests by humans in some cases may be increasing the
likelihood of cancer in some of the
rural villages using them. Poor
farming practices including non-
compliance to usage of masks and
over-usage of the chemicals compound this situation.[45] In 1989, WHO and UNEP estimated
that there were around 1 million
human pesticide poisonings
annually. Some 20,000 (mostly in
developing countries) ended in
death, as a result of poor labeling, loose safety standards etc.[46] Pesticides and cancer Long term exposure to pesticides
such as organochlorines, creosote, and sulfate have been correlated with higher cancer rates and
organochlorines DDT, chlordane, and lindane as tumor promoters in animals.[citation needed] Contradictory epidemiologic
studies in humans have linked
phenoxy acid herbicides or
contaminants in them with soft tissue sarcoma (STS) and malignant lymphoma, organochlorine insecticides with
STS, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL), leukemia, and, less consistently, with cancers of the lung and breast, organophosphorous compounds with NHL and leukemia, and
triazine herbicides with ovarian cancer.[47][48] Punjab case See also: Green Revolution in India The Indian state of Punjab pioneered green revolution
among the other states
transforming India into a food- surplus country.[49] The state is witnessing serious consequences
of intensive farming using
chemicals and pesticide. A
comprehensive study conducted
by Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research (PGIMER) has underlined the direct relationship between
indiscriminate use of these
chemicals and increased incidence of cancer in this region.[50] An increase in the number of cancer
cases has been reported in several
villages including Jhariwala,
Koharwala, Puckka, Bhimawali, and Khara.[50] Environmental activist Vandana Shiva has written extensively about the social, political and
economic impacts of the Green
Revolution in Punjab. She claims
that the Green Revolution's
reliance on heavy use of chemical
inputs and monocultures has resulted in water scarcity,
vulnerability to pests, and
incidents of violent conflict and social marginalization.[51] In 2009, under a Greenpeace Research Laboratories
investigation, Dr Reyes Tirado,
from the University of Exeter , UK conducted the study in 50 villages
in Muktsar, Bathinda and Ludhiana districts revealed chemical, radiation and biological toxicity
rampant in Punjab. Twenty
percent of the sampled wells
showed nitrate levels above the
safety limit of 50 mg/l, established
by WHO, the study connected it with high use of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers.[52] With increasing poisoning of the soil,
the region once hailed as the
home to the Green Revolution, now due to excessive use of
chemical fertilizer, is being termed
by one columnist as the "Other Bhopal".[53] Organic farming About four decades after the
Green Revolution widely helped
the world to be able to produce
food in sufficient levels, a small
percentage of farmers in India have chosen to employ organic farming methods in response to side effects from their adoption of modern agriculture techniques. [54] Norman Borlaug's response to
criticism He dismissed certain claims of
critics, but did take other concerns
seriously and stated that his work
has been: "a change in the right
direction, but it has not
transformed the world into a Utopia".[55] Of environmental lobbyists he
said: "some of the environmental
lobbyists of the Western
nations are the salt of the earth, but many of them are elitists. They've never experienced the physical
sensation of hunger. They do
their lobbying from
comfortable office suites in
Washington or Brussels...If they lived just one month
amid the misery of the
developing world, as I have
for fifty years, they'd be crying
out for tractors and fertilizer
and irrigation canals and be outraged that fashionable
elitists back home were trying
to deny them these things".

HOW TO HERVEST FISH IN A POND

A balanced pond fishery can be
established with the initial
stocking. Maintaining that
balance requires the pond
owner to manage the harvest,
which is usually the most difficult part of pond
management. Although there
are no hard and fast rules for
managing the harvest, the key
is to practice a conservative
harvest. One way is with a minimum size of 14 inches.
Another helpful guideline is to
remove no more than 20 to 25
fish per surface area each year.
Unfertilized ponds, harvest up
to 40 lbs of adult bluegill (about 120 fish) and 10 pounds of adult
bass (about 8 to 10 fish) per
acre per year. Fertilized ponds,
you can harvest 160 pounds of
blue gill (600 to 700 fish) and 35
to 40 pounds of bass (30 to 35 fish) per acre per year. In hervesting it is also good to use a drag net. And also total removal of water in the pond will be of huge help. Call 08032861326 for help and consultancy.

MACHINES USED IN PRODUCING FISH FEEDS

We supply floating fish feed extruder machine, pet feed pellets extruder, feed pellets extruder, aqua feed making machine, fish feed extruder machine, sinking fish feed extruder, pellets extruder machine, aquatic feed extruder, fish feed pellet machine, automatic fish feeding machine, floating fish feed pellet machine, soy extruder machine, etc at industry competitive prices. And also local pelleting machines in low price. Call us on 08032861326.

FINGERLINGS TRANPORTATION AND STOCKING

If the fingerling are to be taken from a market or to a pond which requires a few hours or a long distance of travel, they must be protected better. One method which can also be used for fingerlings transportation is to:
(1) place fingerling into plastic bags or container filled with 1/3 of water.
(2) Fill the rest of the bag or container with oxygen. The oxygen is put into the bag with a hose placed directly into the water so that the oxygen bubbles into the water.
(3) Tie the bag tightly so that the oxygen does not leak out.
(4) place the plastic bags into tin box to keep it save from shock.
(5) change the water in the bags after six hours. The oxygen will last only that long.
(6) Make sure that the bags do not get too hot and that the temperature of the water in the bag stays at about the same temperature as the water from which the fingerlings were taken from.
STOCKING OF FINGERLINGS.
Place the bag in the pond unopened until the water temperature inside the bag is about the same as the temperature in the pond.
Open the bag and let some pond water mix with the water inside the bag and let the bag fill slowly, then the fish will swim out into the pond by its self. If you do not have access to oxygen, is more save to transport in a container and change its water when it gets hot.
FOR YOUR HIGHBRID FINGERLINGS, POND CONSTRUCTION, FEASSIBILITY STUDY, FISH FEED TUTORIAL OR PRODUCTION, LOAN FACILITY,AND OTHER AGRO SEVICES. CALL US ON : 08032861326.

FISH FARMING IN NIGERIA

Fish farming is a farming system whereby the farmer cultures the type of fish specie he/she wants to culture in an enclosed and well built water body. Fish business is of three sections.
(1) The fingerling producing section
(2) The brood stock production section.
(3) The feed production section.
A complete fish farm must have this three sections for optimum production. If a fish farmer can not produce fingerlings (fish seed) then he/she can buy a good breed of it from a reliable

source or contact Kingsway Agro Services for his/her fish seed. If a farmer wants to learn how to produce fingerlings, pond construction, feed formulation and any information about how to farm fish should call 08032861326 for quality services.

In fish farming is advisable for a beginner to call for a consultant to avoid wasting his/her money and is also advisable to have feasibility study before engaging in fish farming so that the beginner will have in hand what it requires and how much money needed to start and finish the whole farming process. Call 08032861326 for help and consultancy.

POND CONTRUCTION FOR FISH FARMING

In fish farming, there are two main type of pond construction namely concrete pond setup and earthen pond construction, there are still other means one can use in fish culture such as using tapolin or lynon, plstic tanks and fibire glass tank as an alternative.
for help and consultancy call 08032861326.

HOW TO FARM SNAIL

In Nigeria snail farming is very demanding and easily to get started and is:
* Highly profitable due to increase
productivity and reduce mortality rate

* Relatively easy and cheap to start and
manage

* Require very little time, energy and
space to manage snail farming. You can actually have a snail farm of up to 4,000 snail
behind your window even as a tenant. And
any body can do it, old and young.

* It’s not messy

* Local demand is increasing as the people
become more conscious of its health value.
* Demand from Hotel is high and with
more hotel outlets springing up daily,
demand actually exceed suppliers.

* Profitable for export purposes to United
Kingdom, Japan, and United States of
America.
* People are more interested in
entrepreneur instead of unsecured salary job

* The need to have second source of
income by most of the salary earners.
 For help and consultancy call 08032861326.

FRY PRODUCTION

Catfish eggs are small and hatch into very small larvae. Channel catfish larvae hatch with a very small yolks sac; the fry are reared in nursery troughs until the yolk sac is absorbed and the fry have started to feed. Nursery troughs are 3m long, 50cm wide and 30cm deep; the troughs are supplied with water at a rate 20l per minute. The fry are stocked at 10,000 per trough.
The fry started to feed about for days after hatching. Fry ponds vary in size about 0.5ha and are stocked with feeding feeding fry at a density of 100,000 per ha. The fry are fed pelleted food and there mortality during this stage is about 35 per. Pangasiidae fry are generally storcked directly into the fry ponds after hatching, although some use is made of fry troughs. The fry feed on the result of the natural productivity of the pond.
Grow out ponds
These ponds vary in size between 1/2 to 2ha. Because of low winter temperature which slow down growth rate, channel catfish are sometimes grown over two years to produce market size fish. During the first year the stocking desity is about 20,000 per ha which is reduced to 4,000 during second year.
Grow out ponds for Clariidae and Pangasiidae vary in size between 0.1 to 2ha and have a depth of 1 to 3m. Fry are stocked at a rate of 250,000/ha.
In Thailand and Cambodia catfish are also produced in floating netting cages which vary in size between 6m2.
Feed
In North America all catfish farms use pelleted manufactured rations formulated to meet the known dietary requirements of the fish.
In the far East the catfish are fed by the productivity of the earth ponds in which they are kept which is stimulated by fertilization. The fish in floating cages are fed with trash fish and plants waste.
North America production levels of 2,000kg/ha per year are obtained. In the far east local catfish have a higher growth rate; in cages the fish reach 1kg in ten months and in ponds 150g in a year. Production levels are high with production rates up to 97,000kg/ha per year, produced in three crops, being claimed.
CALL US ON 08032861326

MOBILE FISH POND FOR FISH FARMING

Chemical reactions between water and the cement used in the construction process affects the fish and limits the growth rate.

The mobility of modern tapeline pond makes it useful in any environment. The growth rate of fish cultured in this modern pond makes it d best.